Fostering Media Literate Global Citizens: Tools for Understanding    Matthew S. Hollstein, ​Kent State University - Stark ​ Jennifer K. Hinkle,​ Ohio University  Frans H. Doppen, ​Ohio University  Theodore E.A. Guedel, ​Kent State University        Abstract  Presently, our students are inundated with media through a variety of resources. Now more  than ever it is vital for students to be able to consume information, which is credible, reliable,  and verifiable. All of this is being compounded by a shrinking world and a level of access which  is almost instant and a media landscape where traditional gateways of editorship may not  always be present. In order to address the need for media literate and global oriented  citizenship we lay out a path for social studies teachers to foster media literate consumers of  information and who view their citizenship through a global lens. Natural disasters provide  wonderful examples of events which have both local and global impacts, and which are relevant  to social studies.    Introduction  Natural disasters, media literacy, and global citizenship are more intertwined than one might realize.  Becoming a media literate global citizen requires that students learn how to examine major events from  multiple global perspectives. Consequently, students must learn how to reframe current events in the context  of global issues as “the realities of global interdependence require [they develop] an understanding of the  increasingly important and diverse connections among world societies” (National Council for the Social Studies  [NCSS], 2010). Social studies teachers have the unique opportunity to help their students make informed and  reasoned decisions for the public good as global citizens of an interdependent world (NCSS, 2013). Examining  current events fosters discussions of ongoing world issues in order to develop a deeper understanding of the  nature of citizenship, but sometimes a depth of understanding is sacrificed when news changes fast. Natural  disasters such as the recurring California wildfires, Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines, and the Australian  bushfires often make headline news only to soon dissipate as public amnesia sets in. An essential part of  developing informed global citizens is helping students acquire a sustained understanding of current events  and their impact; understanding the media’s function in democracy; and learning to make personal and political  decisions that are socially and civically responsible.      Although many social studies teachers make time for current events in their classroom repertoire,  typical instruction often involves students selecting random articles about sensational news items from a  newspaper, magazine, or website (Lipscomb & Doppen, 2013), a mode of instruction that fails to empower  students as learners (Freire, 1970) and minimizes the opportunity to teach a deeper understanding or caring for  people impacted by current events (Doppen & Tesar, 2012; Noddings, 2005). Teaching current events this way  reflects a one-hit, distant historical perspective, which is particularly problematic within a school curriculum  that is shallow and reflects a Western bias (Willinsky, 2000; Zhou, 2009, 2012). Furthermore, current events  instruction often falls by the wayside in academic settings because of high-stakes testing, the need to adhere to  a narrow, rigorous curriculum, and teachers’ own fears about teaching controversial issues (Hollstein & Hawley,  2019; Lipscomb & Doppen, 2013). Even topics that are generally agreed upon as important for current events in  the social studies classroom can be controversial, and therefore neglected, due to a potential lack of teachers’  understanding of and ability to field student questions, or fear of scrutiny from members of the community  about their instructional and curricular decisions (Hollstein, 2016).    More than ever, today’s students can use digital tools to engage a broad spectrum of ongoing global  issues and their impact to learn about unfolding news events while they unfold and play out, discuss the  impacts with others in forums or affinity blogs, and respond with empathy. Yet, many teachers are unsure of  how to help students stay informed of ongoing issues, make reasoned decisions for the global public good, and  respond with empathy. Engaging students in this essential process while helping them move beyond a shallow,  cursory knowledge of world issues in order to “recognize their connections to people around the world who  may share similar situations or have different reactions” (Merryfield & Wilson, 2005, p. 123) seems impossible.  Yet, students can achieve all of this while learning about digital media and social networking sites in which  many people retrieve news and information that can guide earnest seekers of information to truth or  misinformation. It is essential in a social studies classroom that students be able to effectively navigate the  many forms of digital information they may encounter as they study current events. Media literacy provides a  roadmap that will guide students in a broad array of interactions. This is particularly challenging considering  how problematic news information and discussion can be, especially when coupled with global environmental  issues such as the Australian fires, which to many students, seem far away and irrelevant to their lives. It is  important to note that what we are presenting here are materials and examples that we have all used in our  classrooms effectively.    In this paper, we conceptualize a model for media literacy instruction that extends to include a  sustained understanding of current world issues, empowers students to be globally-civically aware, and  promotes media literacy skills. Through this instructional model, students will use media literacy-based  activities in a social studies classroom to uncover information about events, deliberate viewpoints, and begin to  develop a critical awareness based on guiding questions such as:  ▪ What are credible sources for information on global current events?  ▪ What civic obligations do global citizens have to be informed through accurate sources of information?  ▪ What actions can we take to care for people who live far away?  These questions exemplify the overarching knowledge gains for planning student inquiry. As complex  guiding questions, not rooted in one time or place, the questions are intended to promote students’ deeper  thinking about their actions and roles in a civic global society. Such questions ideally emerge as students use  digital media to investigate environmental disasters and the disasters’ basis in human decision-making.  Teachers may encourage students to discuss responses representing multiple perspectives. Further discussions  may center on patterns of whom natural disasters affect, the underlying causes, and the possibilities for  showing empathy and civic engagement during natural disasters. As students grapple with such topics, they  develop a deeper understanding of natural disasters, global citizenship, and use of digital media.  For more explicit essential questions, we draw from Wiggins and McTighe’s (1998) Understanding by  Design Model, which shapes student inquiry in order to elicit knowledge through multiple research pathways.  The UBD Model, also referred to as “backwards design” focuses first on the desired learning outcomes, followed  by steps students take to achieve the outcomes. Teachers may use these essential questions explicitly or  implicitly during the lesson.  Ohio Social Studies Review,​ Volume 56, Issue 2   ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ How can we use the Internet to find accurate information about natural disasters?  How does the Internet spread misinformation about natural disasters?  Who is responsible for natural disasters?  Why have some regions suffered environmental degradation while others have not?  What is the responsibility of citizens outside of the natural disaster area?  How can individuals use the Internet to act civically in the aftermath of a natural disaster?  Citizenship and Current Events  Many digital literacy lesson plans, such as those from T ​ eaching Tolerance​, Newsela, or the Looksharp  Institute, benefit student understanding of current events (political or otherwise), civic actions and obligations,  or promote empathy through shared understanding. This model is unique in its merging of current events,  global understanding, and digital media literacy. Because it is deeply rooted in the philosophy of good  citizenship, this model is most appropriate for social studies coursework. Social studies education has always  included examining the social aspect of citizenship (Beard, 1929; Thornton, 2008). The study of current events  in social studies has been a constant ever since before its formal inception (Camicia & Dobson, 2009; Evans,  2004; Hess, 2008; Oliver & Shaver, 1966). Almost a century ago, John Dewey in D ​ emocracy and Education  argued that it is the duty of citizens to be informed and participatory in their democracy to ensure that it serves  the best interest of all its members. As the father of democratic education, he advocated an informed and  participatory civic collective through the study of current events (Dewey, 2012; Pass, 2007). This requires social  studies education to ensure students become aware and active citizens by examining events outside of the  classroom (Deveci, 2007; NCSS, 2013). The most recent articulation of this responsibility can be found in NCSS’  College, Career and Civic Life Framework (C3) (2013) which requires students to be knowledgeable about  current events and possess the ability to affect change.    The study of current events in social studies can foster the development of democratic citizens who are  able to effectively navigate the many diverse requirements that are placed upon them (Deveci, 2007). Countries  with schooling that promotes students’ questioning and discussions in classrooms as well as civic participation  correlate with a deeper student knowledge of and support for democratic values (Torney-Purta et al., 2001).  Studying contemporary and sometimes controversial events allows students to enact the reality of citizenship  (Camicia, 2008; Hess, 2002; 2005; 2008; King, 2009) and understand its dynamic nature because it requires  them to evaluate alternative perspectives on public issues (Camicia & Dobson, 2009). Conversely, the study of  citizenship from only one perspective delivered as “truth” without regard for multiple perspectives or possible  inaccuracy amounts to indoctrination – “banal nationalism” (Billig, 1996), whereas effective education is “the  opening of possibilities” (Sears & Hughes, 2006, p. 4).    The varied and diverse composition of the global community requires an in-depth understanding of  cultural, social, and political underpinnings that drive global interactions and citizenship. Global citizens should  be informed, aware, and participatory in their local, national a ​ nd​ global communities. However, as the concept  of global citizenship continues to evolve (Banks, 2004; Leduc, 2013; Martin et al., 2012; Myers, 2006) we view  teaching students to understand and respond to the media as a moral imperative for schools.   A Changing Landscape of Civic Notions  Because school experiences serve as predictors of civic knowledge and engagement (IEA, 2001),  studying current issues can serve to help students develop a deeper understanding of the purpose, process,  and problems of becoming a global citizen. Explicitly, students need to understand the media because, to echo  the classic quote by Marshall McLuhan (1964), “The medium is the message.” Each innovation in  Ohio Social Studies Review,​ Volume 56, Issue 2   communication technology and media changes what we know and how we learn (Fang, 1997; Carr, 2011;  Campbell, Martin, & Fabos, 2012), therefore, changing our notions of citizenship.  Historically, each innovation in communication technology and media has provided human beings with  a greater awareness of, and ability to act on, issues beginning with the invention of papyrus and the  development of the alphabet all the way to Web 2.0 technologies, the most recent and pervasive of which are  Facebook, Twitter, Snapchat, and Instagram. However, much of what looks like “information” on the surface is  inaccurate and biased, related to a person, group, or institution’s quest for political or financial gain or  notoriety, or the author’s failure to adequately research and ask important questions before publishing his or  her opinion or status update. Misunderstandings on the part of Internet users also lead to inaccuracies: a lack  of understanding on how to conduct a good Internet search for information using Google or other search  engines (Carr, 2011) or not being able to distinguish between fact and opinion in digital information. Such  problems highlight the truth that all forms of the media are tools that can either be reliable or untrustworthy  depending on ​how people use these tools​ (Debatin, 2008).  Global Issues    In the aftermath of a natural disaster, public attention (and the attention of students as well), typically  fades quickly as new events take its place in the headlines, hearts, and minds of the global community. News  articles, blogs, and government-issued press releases present facts and opinions that can be researched and  evaluated to uncover content information related to the several key areas of the social studies such as history,  geography, economics and civics. In keeping with the democratic, student-centered nature of media literacy,  instructional methods may vary widely from classroom to classroom but must always include a broad variety of  sources, opportunities for students to reflect on what they have learned through discussions and journals, and  student-created media products that empower student voices (CML, 2007; Hobbs, 2005; Hobbs & Jensen, 2009).  Such products should be creative and represent students’ own perspectives; they can take almost any number  of forms, including letters, blogs, editorials, podcasts, videos, photo collections, or news articles. These  strategies represent generally agreed-upon key practices in media literacy instruction (CML, 2007; Hobbs, 2005;  Hobbs & Jensen, 2009).  When selecting a natural disaster for study it is important to consider student interest. Unfortunately,  major world events, including disasters such as the British Petroleum oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010, too  often receive little sustained attention in the classroom, let alone in news. Already, one of the most devastating  fire seasons ripped through Australia and yet, it disappeared from coverage on mainstream media in the United  States. Yet it is important to recognize the global context in which this seemingly localized event took place  (Martin et al., 2012). Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines and the fracking spill on the Opossum Creek in rural  Ohio are examples of local events that are embedded within larger global issues. Controversial in nature, both  events, as well as the oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico, foster numerous questions of social justice, civic  responsibility, and environmental destruction. Typhoon Haiyan was a natural disaster, though one could argue  that the severity of this event was impacted by human action that has led to warmer ocean waters (McKibben,  2011). Hydraulic fracturing is an energy phenomenon that through accessing natural gas and petroleum  deposits in shale basins causes both direct and indirect environmental degradation. Fracking has become a  global issue evidenced by a rapid increase in fracking operations worldwide (Spross, 2014).  All these events share a common thread through their impact on people, wildlife, and the environment at  large. Providing students with an ecological cosmopolitan framework will help them to better understand global  interdependence, the nature of controversy, global citizenship and social justice (Hess, 2004; Moore, 2012; King,  2009). As we begin to offer examples of teaching strategies, we strongly encourage teachers to foster deep  empathy within students through the events they examine and to train students to see humanity in all events. We  Ohio Social Studies Review,​ Volume 56, Issue 2   believe that a critical examination of information through media literacy can foster this level of quality  engagement. Teachers and students might experiment together using anchor chart systems or digital notebooks  to track current events, their implications, and media attention in order to gain deeper understandings and  identify patterns that shape global actions.  Media Literacy in the School Setting  In this era of “fake news” and perception as truth, media literacy is more important than ever. Media  literacy is the foundation for fostering competent global citizens. Presently, students are inundated with  information from traditional sources, such as television news, magazines, and newspapers; and non-traditional  sources such as social media, blogs, and wikis — some of this information being credible, fact-based, and  thorough, with other information being biased, incomplete, or discreditable in other ways. Many students do not  fully understand how to navigate the information cascade but a firm understanding of media literacy will help  offset the aforementioned noise (Lazer et al., 2017).    According to the National Association of Media Literacy Education, media literacy is defined as “the ability  to access, analyze, evaluate, create, and act, using all forms of communication” (n.d., para.1). Traditionally, when  teaching any type of information literacy, the process is relatively similar. A media specialist explains the basis of  the research and then outlines procedures for finding the desired information. Once students have the required  tools, the media specialist will guide them through a round of research to operationalize a potentially abstract  process (Ragains & Wood, 2016). However, this is not the case with media literacy. Hobbs (2010) states that a  “one-size fits all” approach to this problem will not work (p. 20). Therefore, it is vital that in a K-12 setting the  process be separated and segmented to ensure students are successful.    When teaching media literacy at the K-12 level, we recommend beginning with a website called Pacific  Northwest Tree Octopus (​https://zapatopi.net/treeoctopus/​) The website looks typical. It describes the plight of  the Pacific Northwest Tree Octopus and where it lives. The website comes equipped with an About page and  FAQs. You can donate to the tree octopus. You can even learn its Latin name. This website is easy to use when  introducing students to what to look for in valid resources. While the site looks legitimate, we asked the students  to look for references. We teach them to find out where information comes from. Triangulation can be helpful in  this process. We teach the students to find the information in three sources. This process helps solidify the  accuracy of the resource. This coalesces in the idea that our students are only able to be active, informed, and  participatory if they have accurate information on which to base their decision and actions.  K-12 students, especially younger students, present a unique challenge due to where they are in the  range of cognitive developmental milestones. First, younger students have not yet developed the complex  intellectual and emotional skills required to determine if they are being misled. Second, they lack practical  real-world experience (Potter, 2011). In their lack of experience, children do not know what to take at face value  and what information needs further investigation. Research is an acquired skill which must be sharpened over  time with consistent and purposeful practice under the guidance of an expert. These skills will present a difficult  obstacle for students, especially in our current landscape when purportedly “correct” information sources exist.  However, starting media literacy training early can foster research skills and practices which will be fundamental  building blocks to learning to critically evaluate news and information, and the sources of such information, in a  global world with many competing political interests.      Ohio Social Studies Review,​ Volume 56, Issue 2   Table 1 ​Classroom Strategies  Strategy  Key Components  Benefits  Evaluating Sources  Source credibility  Inquiry  Students learn how to differentiate  between expert knowledge and  opinions  Critical thinking  Research Skills     Finding credible sources  Academic databases  Confidence  Internet search engines  Efficiency  Evaluative process  Research skills  Critical thinking     Determining Bias  Nature of bias  Critical thinking  Positionality/Source  Ethical Reasoning  Critical thinking     Media Literacy Classroom Activities    Thus far, we have described current events, the importance of global citizenship, and the importance of  media literacy as a binding strategy across these ideas. We will now describe three strategies which we  encourage social studies teachers to use in their classrooms to examine current events with a media literacy  framework as the guide (Table 1). These strategies are intended to be a starting point for growing students’  media literacy through action. Aligning with NCSS’ (2013) C3 framework inquiry arc, these activities further shift  the focus of students from ​learning​ about an issue to i​ nquiring​ about an issue. These activities encourage  students to identify an issue of interest, investigate this issue, and then determine a resolution of their  choosing. More succinctly, they take the role of active learners instead of passive consumers. While this article  is focused on global citizenship and current events, we have purposefully crafted these sections in a broad way  in order to ensure that teachers can use them across a multitude of subjects and classes in social studies. All  are student-led, enhancing intrinsic motivation.    Ohio Social Studies Review,​ Volume 56, Issue 2   Evaluating Sources  It is essential that students know and be able to differentiate between credible expert driven sources of  information and those which are opinions masquerading as fact. Credibility means that a source of information  has consistently presented accurate information that can be verified by other sources. Social media has created  multiple platforms through which users can post or add information, such as, Facebook, Snapchat, Instagram,  and Twitter. Between the Internet at large and the narrower scope of social media, students are bombarded by  information through, in some cases, minute to minute updates. This cascade of information makes it difficult for  students to determine what is credible information and what is misinformation. In a recent example, dated in  February 2020, Arkansas Senator Tom Cotton, speaking about the coronavirus and where it possibly originated,  suggested that the disease originated in a bio-weapons lab in Wuhan, China and stated “we don’t have evidence  that this disease originated there”… but because of China’s duplicity and dishonesty from the beginning, we need  to at least ask the question to see what the evidence says, and China right now is not giving evidence on that  question at all.” (Stevenson, 2020 n.p.). Senator Cotton is not a disease expert and many of his claims have been  proven false (CNN, 2020). Another example is President Trump’s contention that the coronavirus spread from a  biological weapon effort by China (Timm, 2020). Though the virus did originate in China, and China failed to fully  disclose the severity of the outbreak, there is still no public evidence supporting that it was manmade in a  biological weapons lab. False claims like these create problematic scenarios where students, who trust public  officials, engage the broader world with incorrect information.   In addition, students lacking experience and who trust political leaders or figureheads may perceive  them as unbiased and will believe what they are being told is credible and factual. Thus, by not possessing the  requisite media literacy skills to assess this information, a student might mistake misinformation as factual. Such  risks pose the potential for global hysteria and extreme media and political attention, and a possible threat  beginning with something people have some familiarity with (influenza), originating on the other side of the  world, can have negative effects on global understanding and empathy during disasters.    Being able to evaluate a source through media literacy is necessary for determining credible information.  We encourage students to engage in the following process as if it were a checklist in order to fully perform this  evaluation. Using Senator Cotton’s public statement on the coronavirus or President Trump’s comments, for  example, students must first ask how a source acquires this information and the extent to which this source is  qualified to speak on this issue with expertise. Sourcing information is paramount to high-level media literacy in  order to determine credibility and potential bias. Students who research Senator Cotton’s background and  unpack his credibility may realize he does not have a credible and authoritative position to comment given his  education and background, and over time and with practice, identify patterns of misinformation or propaganda  spreading from unreliable sources when assessing other information. Furthermore, while assessing credibility  students should ask questions such as, “Does this source have professionally trained journalists reporting the  news or are the stories opinions from untrained readers or fans who are simply commenting?” This is critically  important due to our ability to generate content about almost anything and parade it as fact when it may not be.  Teachers should question students frequently about sourcing, especially during discussions of current events or  controversial issues. When studying disasters and global citizenship, such questions can serve to separate rumors  (unverified information) from fact-based reporting.  Similarly, students should ask whether the information is transparent, which means articles or information are  clearly marked as editorials, opinion pieces, or investigative journalism (Caulfield, n.d.). In the case of Senator  Cotton and his misleading coronavirus comments, he was offering a belief without relevant facts to support his  argument which can be very dangerous when someone in a position of authority submits opinion as fact. We  strongly encourage students to strip bare the noise surrounding information in order to ascertain its basic  building blocks. One exercise that demonstrates the evaluative process is to have the students pick a current  Ohio Social Studies Review,​ Volume 56, Issue 2   events topic such as coronavirus. Next, have students search for the topic of that news event using a preferred  search engine such as Google. Upon completion of their initial search, ask students to critically examine their  results. To do this, we suggest having students select one site from their search results and explain why their  source is credible or not credible based on the questions we have outlined above. We recommend that the  first-time teachers engage in this activity that they do so as a whole class for students to see multiple examples of  potentially credible and non-credible sources of information. Further, during this whole-class activity we  encourage students to document their results (see table 2).  Table 2 ​Assessment of Credibility Chart  Topic     Source     Credibility     Notes          Technology is creating more and more platforms for information. While it is hard to keep up with each  new emerging technology, the criteria to assess credible sources does not change. We have found this activity  successful in assessing information credibility across a variety of platforms.  Finding Credible Sources    Now that students understand how to determine the credibility of sources. The next step is to show  students how to search utilizing academic databases or search engines, if academic databases are not readily  available. Academic databases are a powerful tool for students to conduct searches in an academic setting.  Academic databases are wonderful tools for the classroom, especially given that they have been created and  curated for the sole purpose of allowing teachers and students to find academic material. Academic databases  have been designed with students and teachers in mind through their user interface and searchability. Academic  databases can be difficult to use when doing research on current events because their very nature is predicated  upon taking time to properly determine sourcing authority and credibility. Thus, academic databases are useful  as a tool but may not always be helpful when examining current events. However, we recognize that some  schools may not have access to an academic database, such as INFOhio which is a database designed specifically  for K-12 students. If academic databases are not available, then we advocate using a broader Internet search  using a popular search engine as this may be the only accessible tool for students. It is important for students to  understand that search engines are neither good nor bad, rather, search engines are simply an algorithmic  platform to find information. However, students must understand that, as is the case with any search, the quality  of results will always be equal to the quality of the search. This distinction is important because while we prefer  an academic database like INFOhio, search engines can yield fruitful results but only if the students understand  how to search for and determine credible sources. Simply put, a better search will yield better results.   When searching, either an academic database or a search engine, we encourage students to attempt to  find books or journal articles due to the intense scrutiny required for publication, which ensures they are  accessing information that is accurate. However, other sources like news outlets must be evaluated for bias and  credibility. When conducting an internet search, we encourage students to use sites ending in .edu or .gov, as  these sites are educational institutions and government backed sites. However, students will often encounter  sites ending in .org and while most non-profit .org sites are credible, we strongly encourage students to  thoroughly evaluate these sources for bias and potential misinformation. Historically .org sites have been  non-profit organizations. In the case of the American Red Cross this is a strong, reliable source. Some  Ohio Social Studies Review,​ Volume 56, Issue 2   organizations, however, do have an agenda and their information could be considered bias (University System of  Georgia, n.d.[W3] ). We encourage students to maintain a high level of scrutiny, even when using .org sites. In this  age of information, students must be taught to review the “About,” tabs, mission statements, and lists of  contributing authors, funders, and groups that support the websites, particularly .org sites. Even though  propaganda and misinformation can be hidden behind seemingly innocuous group names, amateur researchers  can identify glaring problems and weed out such sites from their sources. With repetition, students will acquire  triangulation and therefore, more reliable knowledge upon which to act.    We believe using INFOhio is straightforward and strongly encourage teachers to connect with their school  media literacy specialists in order to find further guidance. An additional and helpful exercise to finding credible  sources is to have students select their favorite search engine. We encourage students to utilize multiple search  engines to create a wide variety of results. Students may not be aware of how information changes depending on  where they look. Therefore, we encourage students to search for the same topic such as the Australian bushfires  but independently from each other in order to create a variety of results. The Australian bushfires are a great  example of a natural disaster which took on a life of its own due to the volume of information about the issue.  After students search their topic, in our example the bushfires, have them compare their search results with one  another (see table 2). We conducted a search and the third site listed was Wikipedia which may contain a large  amount of accurate information, but which is still editable at any time, by anyone. We also recommend that  teachers document some of the results, perhaps through screenshots, to display to the entire class for later  analysis. As an extension of this activity and to further highlight how information is disseminated, ask students to  search for Australian bushfires using a different search engine. Additionally, changing the order of a multi-word  search will, in most cases, change the search results significantly. We used Bing.com and found that Wikipedia  was now the second page but that three of the first five sites were .org sites. Students need ample time searching  so that they can feel comfortable navigating the Internet effectively. Searching a term and simply adding .edu to  the search bar will greatly enhance the credible sources. Teachers can conduct guided practices with various  keywords in whole-class or small-group settings depending on the schools’ available technology and student  abilities.    We have found in our own classes that when students understand how to find and evaluate credible  sources, they become more confident in their abilities and begin to search out more varied sources due to their  increased skill at determining credible sources. We have also found that this process and subsequent increased  confidence helps to make students more efficient researchers. Over time and through purposeful practice,  students will, hopefully, stop using search engines and go directly to a variety of different sites and sources they  know are reputable. This also addresses NCSS (2013) Standards, Dimension 3 requiring students to practice  evaluating sources and using evidence by having students “gather relevant information from multiple sources  representing a wide range of views while using the origin, authority, structure, context, and corroborative value of  the sources to guide the selection” (p.54).  Determining Bias    All information comes from sources which have been created by people who are themselves biased  which means all material has bias (Ryan, 2019). Therefore, it is the researcher’s job to evaluate bias. A primary  question that students should ask is whether the bias is intentional. For example, when looking for information  on drugs used in medicine, students are not encouraged to use a pharmaceutical company’s website due to its  vested interest in creating a favorable view of their product rather than providing all relevant information. A  better alternative would be the Physician’s Desk Reference.    Bias is much more widespread today than in the past due to our far-reaching ability to introduce and  disseminate information. Ryan (2019) notes that outside of ethical journalism and academics, most individuals  Ohio Social Studies Review,​ Volume 56, Issue 2   are not overly concerned with controlling the bias of their material. When students better understand and can  assess a source’s agenda, this can help greatly with determining bias. Shearer and Matsa (2018) reported that  about two-thirds of Americans get their news from social media. While news sources are supposed to inform  their audience and not promote one agenda over another or encourage you to think a certain way on a topic, it  has become much more widespread to attempt to do both (Caulfield, n.d.). We strongly encourage teachers to  have students choose sources from different mediums and then ask them to determine potential bias. This  exercise will help students to become familiar with different mediums and their possible bias.     Students need to be exposed to all types of sources, to face them head on. Interestingly, a recently  published study by the Pew Research Center for Journalism and Media identified deep partisan divisions among  U.S. consumers regarding trust of different well-known news organizations (Pew, 2020). Schools can help bridge  this divide by teaching students to rely on multiple, reliable sources for news and information. Technology is only  going to become more advanced. Teaching students how to determine bias in an article or news source will  prepare them for a lifetime of research. The fight against bias will never end but teaching students to recognize it  will lessen its persuasive power over them (Ryan, 2019).    Conclusion    Global citizenship and media literacy have become intertwined with one another due to the expanding  notion of what each represents. Empathy is a powerfully simple idea that, when applied, can foster true  connections between students and ideas. This is especially significant when one considers the implications of  expanding students’ sense of global citizenship through media literacy. It is paramount that students not see  these events and those whom they impact as abstract. Rather, students must see these events as empathetic,  thoughtful, responsive, and inclusive members of a greater global world.    We have argued the essential role media literacy plays in students’ participation in the world community  due to their need to navigate a complex landscape of information and misinformation. Furthermore, this  landscape is quickly changing and what we have presented are a series of skills which will help students be able  to find their way, regardless of the source of the information. We have used these activities successfully in  classrooms and can attest to how powerfully beneficial they can be. However, these activities and growing  students’ media literacy are not something to be engaged in lightly due to the high stakes. At the present, the  United States is engaged in a presidential election which will require students to navigate and unpack a multitude  of sources and ideas. However, through this framework, we believe students can and will be successful, not only  now, but in the future as well.           Ohio Social Studies Review,​ Volume 56, Issue 2     References    Arenschield, L. (2014, July 21). H ​ alliburton delayed releasing details on fracking chemicals after Monroe county spill.   Columbus Dispatch​. h ​ ttp://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/local/2014/07/21/details-on-chemicals-…; trickle-in-after-spill.html     Botehlo, G. & Tuchman, G. (2014, March 26). ​No fresh signs of life in search after devastating Washington landslide.​ ​CNN. http://www.cnn.com/2014/03/26/us/washington-landslide/     Camicia, S.P. & Dobson, D. 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Blackwell.     Hanvey, R.G. (1975 ). A ​ n attainable global perspective. ​New York: Center for War/Peace Studies.     Ohio Social Studies Review,​ Volume 56, Issue 2   Heilman, E. (2011). A new paradigm for citizenship education: The personal-political approach.​ I​ n Devitis, J (Ed.).  Critical civic literacy: A reader​ (pp 113- 128). International Academic Publishers.     Hess, D. (2008). Controversial issues and democratic discourse. In L. S. Levstik & C. A. Tyson (Eds.), ​Handbook of   research in social studies education​ (pp. 124-136). Routledge.     Hobbs, R. (2010). ​Digital and media literacy: A plan of action [​ White paper]. February 13, 2020 from  https://www.issuelab.org/resources/7097/7097.pdf     Hobbs, R. (2005). Media literacy and the K-12 content areas. In Schwarz, G., & Brown, P.U. (Eds.), ​Media literacy:   Transforming curriculum and teaching. The 104​th​ yearbook of the National Society for the Study of   Education, Part 1 ​(pp. 74-99). 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